Acorns were gathered in October; this was a communal effort with the men climbing the trees and shaking them while the women and children collected the nuts. Tongva (Gabrielino) Tribe Facts. "[12] In 1847, a law was passed that prohibited Gabrielenos from entering the city without proof of employment. [112] Weywot ruled over the Tongva, but he was very cruel, and he was finally killed by his own sons. "[5] A missionary during this period reported that three out of four children died at Mission San Gabriel before reaching the age of 2. ISBN: 9781597141154. In recent years, the enduring legacies of the original people of the Los Angeles basin, referred to as the Tongva or Gabrielinos, have become more and more apparent in the landscape of the region. Their footpath through the Sepulveda Basin was the original 405 freeway. The flower heads were beaten with a paddle over a tightly woven basket to collect the seeds. [88], Harpoons, spear-throwers, and clubs were used to hunt marine mammals and te'aat used to access them. They historically inhabited the Los Angeles Basin and the Southern Channel Islands, an area covering approximately 4,000 square miles (10,000 km2). However, Henley admitted that moving them to a reservation, potentially at Sebastian Reserve in Tejon Pass, would be opposed by the citizens because "in the vineyards, especially during the grape season, their labor is made useful and is obtained at a cheap rate." Contemporary members have cited being denied the legitimacy of their identity. The park was dedicated on October 13, 2013. The Gabrielino Indians of Los Angeles by . The Gabrielinos ate the native wild berries, such as wild grapes, elderberries, blackberries, currants, gooseberries, and manzanitas ("little apple" in Spanish). Tongva Valley is an undeveloped part of the State of San Andreas located in Los Santos County in Grand Theft Auto V and Grand Theft Auto Online. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. The Tongva (/tv/ TONG-v) are an Indigenous people of California from the Los Angeles Basin and the Southern Channel Islands, an area covering approximately 4,000 square miles (10,000 km2). The Tongva are also known as the Gabrielino and the Fernandeno, after the names given to them by Spanish missionaries. [10], In 1882, Helen Hunt Jackson was sent by the federal government to document the condition of the Mission Indians in southern California. [14] During the following occupation by Americans, many of the Tongva and other indigenous peoples were targeted with arrest. [9], The Gaspar de Portol land expedition in 1769 resulted in the founding of Mission San Gabriel by Christian missionary Junipero Serra in 1771. In the summer, families who lived near grasslands collected roots, seeds, flowers, fruit, and leafy greens, and in the winter families who lived near chaparral shrubland collected nuts and acorns, yucca, and hunted deer. Presently, Gabrieleo is also being used in language revitalization classes and in some public discussion regarding religious and environmental issues.[51]. To fail to show courage was the height of disgrace among the Tongva. The Gabrielino/Tongva of California Tribal Council and the Coastal Gabrielino-Diegueno Band of Mission Indians filed federal petitions in 1997. LOS ANGELES For nearly 100 years, UCLA has operated on land that once belonged to the Gabrielino Tongva tribe. Entire villages fled inland to escape the invaders and continued devastation. Prominent fauna included mule deer, pronghorn, black bear, grizzly bear, black-tailed jackrabbit, cottontail, bald eagle, red-tailed hawk, dolphin, and gray whale. [12] As stated by scholar Ralph Armbruster-Sandoval, "while they should have been owners, the Tongva became workers, performing strenuous, back-breaking labor just as they had done ever since settler colonialism emerged in Southern California. [90][78], Women collected and prepared plant and some animal food resources and made baskets, pots, and clothing. Tongva descendant Craig Torres delved into the cultural history of the Tongva, particularly on Spanish colonization and its effects on indigenous peoples and plant life. The majority of Tongva territory was located in what has been referred to as the Sonoran life zone, with rich ecological resources of acorn, pine nut, small game, and deer. [50] The demarcation of the Fernandeo and the Gabrieleo territories is mostly conjectural and there is no known point in which the two groups differed markedly in customs. The agreement, called the memorandum of understanding, or MOU for short, states that "members of the Gabrielino Tongva . [75] The mush thus prepared was eaten cold or nearly so, as was all their food. [65], The Tongva Taraxat Paxaavxa Conservancy has been established as part of the Land Back movement and for rematriation of Tongva homelands. [50], The Spanish oversaw the construction of Mission San Gabriel in 1771. [93], The Tongva used the leaves of tule reeds as well as those of cattails to weave mats and thatch their shelters. Tongva Peak, in the Verdugo Mountains, with Los Angeles in the background. To build them, they used planks of driftwood pine that were sewn together with vegetable fiber cord, edge to edge, and then glued with the tar that was available either from the La Brea Tar Pits, or as asphalt that had washed up on shore from offshore oil seeps. Another favored Tongva food was the seed kernel of a species of plum (prunus ilicifolia, aka holly-leaf cherry) they called islay, which was ground into meal and made into gruel. The available evidence suggests strong cultural links with the group's linguistic kin and neighbors to the south and east, the Luiseo and the Cahuilla. They historically and originally inhabited the Los Angeles Basin and the Southern Channel Islands, an area covering over 4,000 square miles. claim one location as a permanent site for any of these villages, much less to guarantee the status of any particular village. [106] The tribe denounced archeologists breaking bones of ancestral remains found during an excavation of a site at Playa Vista. Controversies have arisen in contemporary California related to land-use issues and Native American rights, including those of the Tongva. [13] The lack of federal recognition has prevented the Tongva from having control over their ancestral remains, artifacts, and has left them without a land base in their traditional homelands. The Tongva traveled among other tribes on foot and also by canoes, called ti'ats, which could hold 15 people and were specially designed and crafted . The Gabrielino/Tongva Tribe (sometimes called the "slash" group) and Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe (sometimes called the "hyphen" group) are the two primary factions advocating a casino for the Tongva nation, with sharing of revenues by all the people. October 16, 2013. When the Tongva assembled to decide what to do next, they had a vision of a ghostly being who called himself Quaoar, who said he had come to restore order and to give laws to the people. as per Hand Book of Indians of California. "[21] No organized group representing the Tongva has attained recognition as a tribe by the federal government. The case status is Other. In turn, the ayuntamiunto (city council) passed new laws to compel Natives to work or be arrested. [12] However, the government had instituted a system dependent on Native labor and servitude and increasingly eliminated any alternatives within the Los Angeles area. Therefore, resources such as plants, animals, and earth minerals were diverse and used for various purposes, including for food and materials. [6], Along with the neighboring Chumash, the Tongva were the most influential people at the time of European encounter. In 1959, the Court of Claims entered a final order recognizing the aboriginal title of the Gabrielino Tribe and other California tribes to 64 million acres west of the Sierra Nevada Range. At the Gabrieleo settlement of Yaanga along the Los Angeles River, missionaries and Indian neophytes, or baptized converts, built the first town of Los Angeles in 1781. [5][47] The Tongva lived in as many as one hundred villages. A reservation is land that belongs to an Indian tribe and is under their control. There is some speculation that Reid was campaigning for the position of Indian agent in Southern California, but died before he could be appointed. [22][23], In 2008, more than 1,700 people identified as Tongva or claimed partial ancestry. That information would be used to identify applicants who could share in another award. Case Details Parties Documents Dockets. These were dried or roasted and ground into a flour called "pinole," which was often mixed with the flour of other ground seeds or grains. However, even though Jackson's report would become the impetus for the Mission Indian Relief Act of 1891,[10] the Gabrieleo were "overlooked by the commission charged with setting aside lands for Mission Indians. The group used wooden tongs to collect prickly pear fruits. It has proposed a casino to be built in Garden Grove, California, approximately two miles south of Disneyland. After Genocide, the Tongva Are Alive and Kicking in Los Angeles.This is a sampling of the festivities of the October 8th 2017 Annual "Life Before Columbus" D. In the Los Angeles basin area, only 20 former neophytes from San Gabriel Mission received any land from secularization. View PDF. A monument to the Tongva tribe, an Indigenous people who had villages throughout the Los Angeles basin hundreds of years ago, will debut in Rancho Palos Verdes during a Saturday, Oct. 16, ceremony . Nearly 200 Native nations exist in California today, of which 111 are federally recognized. Glen Creason. Villages were located throughout four major ecological zones, as noted by biologist Matthew Teutimez: interior mountains and foothills, grassland/oak woodland, sheltered coastal canyons, and the exposed coast. It extended from Palos Verdes to San Bernardino, from Saddleback Mountain to the San Fernando Valley. Home region: San Fernando Valley east to the Los Angeles basin to near San Bernardino, Santa Catalina, San Nicols and San Clemente Islands. [87] Burrowing animals were driven from their burrows with smoke and clubbed; communal rabbit drives were made during the seasonal controlled burning of chaparral on the prairie,[69] the rabbits being killed with nets, bow and arrows, and throwing sticks. The front apron was made of cords of twisted dog bane or milkweed. C itlali Arvizu, a descendant of Southern California's Gabrielino-Tongva Indians, didn't grow up speaking the Tongva language, but she's hoping her children do. I didnt even get their names.[57], The continued denigration and denial of tribal identity perpetuated by Anglo-American institutions such as schools and museums has presented numerous obstacles for the people throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Under the mission system, the Spanish initiated an era of forced relocation and virtual enslavement of the peoples to secure their labor. In February 1921, the Los Angeles Times declared that the death of Jose de los Santos Juncos, an Indigenous man who lived at Mission San Gabriel and was 106 years old at his time of passing, "marked the passing of a vanished race. First posted on Feb 10, 2013. In 1852, Hugo Reid wrote a series of letters for the Los Angeles Star from the center of the Gabrieleo community in San Gabriel township, describing Gabrieleo life and culture. [86] John P. Harrington recorded that rattlesnake venom was used as an arrow poison. The people enslaved at San Gabriel were referred to as Gabrieleos, while those enslaved at San Fernando were referred to as Fernandeos. [99], In September 2006, the Santa Monica faction divided into the "slash" and "hyphen" groups: the Gabrielino/Tongva Tribe and Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe. It is bordered by Lago Zancudo to the north, Tongva Hills to the west, Richman Glen to the south, and Great Chaparral and Vinewood Hills to the east. [64] In 2022, it was announced that part of the village site of Genga may be transformed into a green space. There was never a Tongva Tribe. While UCI was built on tribal lands in 1965, today, tribe members, along with UCI faculty and staff, are seeking to address the invisibility of Native nations through active community engagement. ", Getze, George. Native men were disproportionately criminalized and swept into this legalized system of indentured servitude. The Long Beach-area tribe has worked for years to attain this formal recognition, but it is tediousand sometimes impossible due to lack of records. The Tongva Tribe. [88], Tongva material culture and technology reflected a sophisticated knowledge of the working properties of natural materials and a highly developed artisanship, shown in many articles of everyday utility decorated with shell inlay, carving, and painting. The company that performed the initial archaeological survey was fined $600,000 for its poor assessment that clearly favored the developer. ), grass (Muhlenbergia rigens), and squawbush (Rhus trilobata), women fabricated coiled and twined basketry in a three-color pattern for household use, seed collecting, and ceremonial containers to hold grave offerings. Situating their villages at these resource islands enabled the Tongva to gather the plant products of two or more zones in close proximity. Alan Hudson on Magician puts . the Gabrielino/Tongva Tribe, known as the "slash" group; the Gabrieleo Band of Mission Indians; and; the Gabrieleo/Tongva Tribal Council. The following day, Cabrillo and his men, the first Europeans known to have interacted with the Gabrieleo people, entered a large bay on the mainland, which they named "Baya de los Fumos" ("Bay of Smokes") on account of the many smoke fires they saw there. Beneath the glamour and fiction, lies the sinister truth. Section 14 of the act stated:[10]. The Gabrielino Tribal Council of San Gabriel, now known as the Kizh Nation (Gabrieleo Band of Mission Indians), claims that it does not support gaming. The park includes an amphitheater, playground, garden, fountains, picnic areas, and restrooms. There may have been five or more such languages (three on the southernmost Channel Islands and at least two on the mainland). They had developed an extensive trade network through te'aats (plank-built boats). [15], Despite being declared extinct, Gabrieleo children were still being assimilated by federal agents who encouraged enrollment at Sherman Indian School in Riverside, California. At San Gabriel alone, there were unsuccessful revolts in 1779, 1785, and 1812. Recent Comments. On 01/08/2021 GABRIELINO-TONGVA TRIBE filed a Property - Other Property Fraud lawsuit against JONATHAN STEIN. ), and yucca (Hesperoyucca whipplei). It was a time when there was a perfect balance of the ecosystem where fish and game were plentiful and the river ran . These applications for federal recognition remain pending. [13] In 1994, the state of California recognized the Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe (Spanish: Tribu de Gabrieleo-Tongva)[97] and the Fernandino-Tongva Tribe (Spanish: Tribu de Fernandeo-Tongva),[98] but neither has gained federal recognition. Bogany was 72. . [5] Some "Gabrieleo" absorbed into Mexican society as a result of secularization, which emancipated the neophytes. [58] In schools, students were punished for mentioning that they were "Indian" and many of the people assimilated into Mexican-American or Chicano culture. [96], There were three capital crimes in the community: murder, incest and disrespect for elders. "[12] By 1844, most Natives in Los Angeles worked as servants in a perpetual system of servitude, tending to the land and serving settlers, invaders, and colonizers. A new agreement between UCLA and members of the Gabrielino Tongva tribe will ensure that traditional ways of planting, harvesting and gathering are part of campus landscaping and caretaking practices. Jane Hussey, a tribal member of the Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe, left, and her sister Linda Candelaria, acting chairwoman of the tribe, check out Baldwin Lake at the Arboretum in Arcadia on Wednesday . 12100 Mora Drive Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670 . The Tongva consider the springs, which flow at 22,000 gallons per day, to be one of their last remaining sacred sites and they regularly make them the centerpiece of ceremonial events. The actual location is believed to have been east of the saltmarsh along the base of the Westchester bluffs in what is now Playa Vista. In 1848, Los Angeles formally became a town of the United States following the Mexican-American War. In 1846, it was noted by researcher Kelly Lytle Hernndez that 140 Gabrieleos signed a petition demanding access to mission lands and that Californio authorities rejected their petition. Gabrielino-Tongva villages were located in the Los Angeles Basin for thousands of years. Tribal identity is also hindered by a lack of federal recognition and having no land base, which has meant that the tribe has access to almost none of their traditional homelands. Stretching over six acres, the park has unique structures, art sculptures, diverse and sustainable plants and trees, and plenty of amenities for everyone to enjoy. Tongva Valley is based on . [5] When questioned about the attack, Toypurina is famously quoted in as saying that she participated in the instigation because [she hated] the padres and all of you, for living here on my native soil, for trespassing upon the land of my forefathers and despoiling our tribal domains. This is commonly believed to be San Pedro Bay, near present-day San Pedro. [41], In 1811, the priests of Mission San Gabriel recorded at least four languages; Kokomcar, Guiguitamcar, Corbonamga, and Sibanga. Author: longbeachmoms Published on: November 18, 2021 Published in: Family. They were asking questions about the Gabrieleno Indians. This case was filed in U.S. District Courts, California Central District Court. The finished vessel was caulked with plant fibers and tar, stained with red ochre, and sealed with pine pitch. [25] In 2022, a 1-acre site was returned to the conservancy in Altadena, which marked the first time the Tongva had land in Los Angeles County in 200 years. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE TONGVA TRIBE: THE NATIVE INHABITANTS OF THE LANDS OF THE PUENTE HILLS PRESERVE Rosanne Welch PhD Program, Department of History Claremont Graduate University Claremont, California 91711 July 2006 f 2 While several bands of Indians are thought to have traversed the lands now comprising the . [12], In 1848, California was ceded to the United States following the Mexican-American War. I always get downvoted. The Gabrielino-Tongva The Gabrielino-Tongva tribe has been indigenous to the Los Angeles Basin for 7,000 years. I was busy with the tour, we were crowded. Look up the Kizh Nation. However, "the grand jury dismissed the depths of Indigenous claims to life, land, and sovereignty in the region and, instead, chose to frame Indigenous peoples as drunks and vagrants loitering in Los Angeles disavowing a long history of Indigenous belonging in the basin. [84] The prepared meal was cooked by boiling in water in a watertight grass-woven basket or in a soapstone bowl into which heated stones were dropped. None of these organizations is recognized as a tribe by the federal government.[24]. However, these treaties were never ratified by the Senate. In 1817, the San Gabriel Mission recorded that there were "473 Indian fugitives. After decades of work, Bogany died March 28 of complications from a stroke, said Gina Lamb, a media studies professor at Pitzer College. As stated by research Heather Valdez Singleton, newcomers "took advantage of the fact that many Gabrieleo families, who had cultivated and lived on the same land for generations, did not hold legal title to the land, and used the law to evict Indian families." [111], According to Kroeber (1925), the pre-Christian Tongva had a "mythic-ritual-social six-god pantheon". The library of Loyola Marymount University, located in Los Angeles (Westchester), has an extensive collection of archival materials related to the Tongva and their history. Only again to drowned out by the noise and hunger of a machine that knows no rest. Rocha is credited as a pioneer in modern Gabrielino movements, such as environmental protections for sacred areas including the Ballona Wetlands and the Etiwanda Sage Preservation. Like many California Indians, the Gabrielinos were placed in reservations together with other Mission Indians from different tribes. In other cases, toponyms or places have been recently named to honor the indigenous peoples. Others moved to Los Angeles, a city which saw an increase in the Native population from 200 in 1820 to 553 in 1836 (out of a total population of 1,088). The group affiliation of an applicant's ancestors was thus a basis for exclusion from, but not a requirement for inclusion on, the judgment roll. "[12] In January 1836, the council directed Californios to sweep across Los Angeles to arrest "all drunken Indians. The members or ancestors of the petitioning group were not affected by the exclusion in the Act. In O, My Ancestor, members of the Los Angeles area's Gabrielino-Tongva community reflect on what it means to be Gabrielino-Tongva today, when centuries of domination by the Spanish and then Americans have left little of the native culture intact. Juaneno (Acjachemem) Native Location: The areas now known as Orange County (including parts of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, and San Diego Counties) in the State of California, were the ancestral tribal lands of the Acjachemem people. [92] They sealed some baskets, such as water bottles, with asphalt to make watertight containers for holding liquids. The Tongva language (also known as Gabrielino or Gabrieleo) is an extinct Uto-Aztecan language formerly spoken by the Tongva, a Native American people who live in and around Los Angeles, California. [58], The mission period ended in 1834 with secularization under Mexican rule. [b] Tongva is the most widely circulated endonym among the people, used by Narcisa Higuera in 1905 to refer to inhabitants in the vicinity of Mission San Gabriel. Los Angeles, City of Angeles, is a city founded by murderers and thieves disguising themselves as such. [82] The seeds of chia, a herbaceous plant of the sage family, were gathered in large quantities when they were ripe. [92], Using the stems of rushes (Juncus sp . Hoover had collected Tongva artifacts from the condominium site more than 20 years ago - some of them preserved by the University of La Verne - and the maps confirmed the village location. . [52] Land was systemically denied to California Natives by Californio land owning men. The fruit consists of a large stone wrapped by a thin layer of pulp. Tongva territories border those of numerous other tribes in the region. [75], In the Tongva economic system, food resources were managed by the village chief, who was given a portion of the yield of each day's hunting, fishing, or gathering to add to the communal food reserves. [39], The Act of September 21, 1968, introduced this concept of the affiliation of an applicant's ancestors in order to exclude certain individuals from receiving a share of the award to the Indians of California who chose to receive a share of any awards to certain tribes in California that had splintered off from the generic group. [1] The Tongva are also known as the Gabrieleo and Fernandeo,[a] names derived from the Spanish missions built near their territory: Mission San Gabriel Arcngel and Mission San Fernando Rey de Espaa . ), datura or jimsonweed (Datura innoxia), white sage (Salvia apiana), Juncus spp., Mexican Elderberry (Sambucus), wild tobacco (Nicotiana spp. [25] The kuuyam nahwa ("guest exchange") has been developed by the conservancy as a way for people living on the homelands of the Tongva to pay a form of contribution for living on the land. Publication Date: 2009-10-01. ", Kroeber (1925) pp. [11], They retaliated by resistance and rebellions, including an unsuccessful rebellion in 1785 by Nicols Jos and female chief Toypurina. They have been referred to as the most culturally 'advanced' group south of the Tehachapi, and the wealthiest of the Uto-Aztecan speakers in California, dominating other native groups culturally wherever contacts occurred. arrival. As you well know this canyon was home to 6-14 Tongva Indians from the village of Ceegenga or Sasabenga who were removed from Aliso canyon between 1797-1802 email contribution 9-06-12, from Dustin Lorentz (Scholar/Anthropoligist) . The case status is Pending - Other Pending. Gabrielino (also called "Gabrieleo", "Tongva", and "Kizh") is a member of the Takic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Within Takic, it is related to Cahuilla, Cupeo, Juaneo, Kitanemuk, Luiseo, Serrano, and Tataviam. Reclaiming ancestral land is rare for any Native American nation, tribe or band. "[36][37][38], Because tribal groups have disagreed about appropriate use of the term Tongva, they have adopted Gabrieleo as a mediating term. Five major uprisings were recorded at Mission San Gabriel alone. Because of historical uses, the term is part of every official tribe's name in this area, spelled either as "Gabrieleo" or "Gabrielino. [63] Further attempts to establish a reservation for the Gabrieleo in 1907 failed. The original . [113], After consulting with the Tongva, astronomers Michael E. Brown and Chad Trujillo used the name of Quaoar to name a large object in the Kuiper belt that they had discovered, 50000 Quaoar (2002). [12], Although federal officials reported that there were an estimated 16,930 California Indians and 1,050 at Mission San Gabriel, "the federal agents ignored them and those living in Los Angeles" because they were viewed as "friendly to the whites," as revealed in the personal diaries of Commissioner George W. Barbour. The first part of our name "Gabrieleno" comes from the term the Spainiards gave us while we worked and lived as slaves in the San Gabriel Mission. Examples include Pacoima, Tujunga, Topanga, Rancho Cucamonga, Azusa (Azucsagna), and Cahuenga Pass. [110], Tongva/Gabrieleo/Fernandeo oral literature is relatively little known, due to their early Christianization in the 1770s by Spanish missions in California. They have no jurisdiction more than to appoint times for holding of Feasts and regulating affairs connected with the church [traditional structure made of brush]." Peoples including the Tongva who were tied to California's old Spanish missions lack federal tribal status, which . The act of 1968 stated that the Secretary of the Interior would distribute an equal share of the award to the individuals on the judgment roll regardless of group affiliation. [40], Many lines of evidence suggest that the Tongva are descended from Uto-Aztecan-speaking peoples who originated in what is now Nevada, and moved southwest into coastal Southern California 3,500 years ago. [77][78] The young shoots were eaten raw. Cindy Alvitre, former tribal leader, educator, cultural consultant, Weshoyot Alvitre, comic book artist and illustrator, This page was last edited on 21 February 2023, at 19:39. Some of the people were displaced to small Mexican and Native communities in the Eagle Rock and Highland Park districts of Los Angeles as well as Pauma, Pala, Temecula, Pechanga, and San Jacinto. Tribal officials tentatively agreed to use the term Gabrieleo. Large game animals were hunted with bow and arrows, and small game was taken with deadfall traps, snares, and bows made of buckeye wood. [2] One or two clans would usually constitute a village, which was the center of Tongva life.[5]. Nicols Jos, led two late-eighteenth century revolts against the Spanish colonizers in 1779 and 1785 in collaboration with Toypurina. I asked why they wanted to know, and nearly fell over when they told me they were Gabrielenos and wanted to know something about themselves. [15], The Tongva have also struggled to protect their sacred sites, ancestral remains, and artifacts from destruction in the 21st century. [25], The Tongva lived in the main part of the most fertile lowland of southern California, including a stretch of sheltered coast with a pleasant climate and abundant food resources,[67] and the most habitable of the Santa Barbara Islands. Unable to pay fines, they were used as convict laborers in a system of legalized slavery to expand the city of Los Angeles for Anglo-American settlers, who became the new majority in the area by 1880.[12]. [35], The Spanish referred to the indigenous peoples surrounding Mission San Gabriel as the Gabrieleo. [10] Soon it began to be perpetuated in the local press that the Gabrieleo were extinct. CA. Villages were located in places with accessible drinking water, protection from the elements, and productive areas where different ecological niches on the land intersected. [10], In 1859, amidst increasing criminalization and absorption into the city's burgeoning convict labor system, the county grand jury declared "stringent vagrant laws should be enacted and enforced compelling such persons ['Indians'] to obtain an honest livelihood or seek their old homes in the mountains."

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